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This said, as Dr. Berthoud notes, there is no evidence to suggest that such marks are truly "territorial". That is, it may be that urination does not function in a manner that truly defines territory - at least not in a defensive sense. Such marks may simply convey another sort of social information - more "I was here", than "get out of here". Either way, it would appear that dogs have a sense of where to place their urine.
What is striking is that these findings seems to suggest that dogs have a notion of “self” versus “other” based on urine cues.
Vital to the analysis of the pee behaviour was age and sexual entirety/or not, plus oestrus cycle stage in females. I'd like to think this was taken into account.
How amazing that dogs might realise they are themselves and not another dog who would have thought that possible?
A dog is never bad or naughty - it is simply being a dog